Linking science and human rights: Facts and figures

s。Romi Mukherjee概述了基于人权的科学，技术和发展的方法，以及它们对政策和实践的意义。

人权为基础的方法科学、技术gy and development seeks to place a concern for human rights at the heart of how the international community engages with urgent global challenges. It entered the UN's lexicon in 1997, with Kofi Annan's call for human rights to be integrated into the UN's mandates, management, and methodologies for development and international cooperation.

The UN Development Programme characterises this approach as one that "leads to better and more sustainable outcomes by analyzing and addressing the inequalities, discriminatory practices and unjust power relations which are often at the heart of development problems. It puts the international human rights entitlements and claims of the people (the 'right-holders') and the corresponding obligations of the state (the 'duty-bearer') in the centre of the national development debate, and it clarifies the purpose of capacity development". [1]

However, there is no universally accepted definition of human rights-based approaches. [2] This does not necessarily mean the concept lacks focus or substance. On the contrary, it provides a framework for confronting important global issues — fromgenderbiases to food and水safety to misuses of science and technology — grounded in a set of principles, developed through international consensus (see box 1), that clarify the relationship between 'rights holders' and 'duty bearers'. [3]

许多国际政策学者认为，基于权利的方法有助于将非政府组织和联合国系统从专业化的慈善事业转向能力建设中；他们承诺可持续的干预措施并减少对援助的依赖；他们有助于重新定义政府当局，地方参与者，非政府组织和联合国制度的责任。[4]

For science and technology,该方法要求科学家不知道他们的工作与人权的关系, and demands that they strive to secure and affirm human rights through the knowledge they produce. For instance, a rights-based approach to virus studies — in potentially creating an ethical framework that guides research as it evolves — would not only push the frontiers of medicine and seek medical benefits, but actively guard against the potential to create new biological weapons. There is a question, here, of whether this is the responsibility of virologists (e.g. by contributing to dual-use debates) or the scientific community in general.

A human rights perspective also affirms that access to scientific information is a human right(Article 27(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, see box 1). [5] This implies that the benefits of scientific advancement should be shared openly, free from restrictions by social groups, corporate entities or states. Above all, a rights-based approach to science seeks to create the conditions for equitable participation in the global science community and fair access to scientific information and goods.

从一般意义上讲，一种基于人权的方法认识到科学是一种社会组织的人类活动，它具有价值，并由组织结构和程序塑造。它询问政府和其他利益相关者如何制定和实施政策以确保安全，健康和生计；包括人们的需求和优先事项，在发展和环境战略中；beplay足球体育的微博并确保他们参与影响其生活和资源的决策。

文化冲突

基于人权的方法并非没有批评者。的确，强有力的批评来自全球南方的发展理论家和政策制定者，他们强调了以欧洲中心和西方的人权起源，以及他们如何与非欧洲宗教和社会世界的观点彻底冲突。替代思想体系通常比“自我”更有利于冬青化和社区，这使这种方法提出质疑，经常观察要求将人权视为通过强加“人类”和个人“权利”来征服全球南方公民的另一种策略努力认识这些观念的文化。

因此，我们是否应该认可某些旨在受益的社区提出质疑的方法？毫无疑问，它来自18世纪欧洲高度特定的社会和政治环境，但不应轻易忽视它。例如，断言人权运动在冲突区域的良好状况或认为欧洲中心的根源取消了他们积极的社会变革能力，这是一个错误。

Rather, the challenge is to explore how the human rights approach can help promote我ndigenousand local knowledge; how it can enable dialogue between competing beliefs where each claims to be universal; and how it can establish bridges between traditional and innovative forms of science and technology.

In addition, science and technology can cause serious harm to the social and ecological systems on which life depends. Military technologies, for example, can be used to undermine liberty and justice; and新技术， 例如纳米技术或地球工程，甚至可能会质疑成为人类的意义。人权方法可以阐明新技术的道德含义，并研究政策如何跟上快速发展的科学。

另一方面，科学和技术还可以增强发展甚至实现人权的发展（方框2）。这扩展到信息和通信技术（ICTs) as tools that potentially facilitate access to scientific knowledge. ICTs are rapidly influencing democratic practice through e-government and social networks, for example. [17] But the use of ICT tools can also be suppressed through censorship or under-development — leading todigital divides这带来了新的排除形式。这说明了人权方法如何支持公平有效地使用ICT等技术的需求。

与伦理的关系

The right to science and its benefits are not yet central to the ethics of development (a discipline that engages with human and social implications of development). This is partly because development ethicists prefer a language of principles, considered appropriate for capacity building, over a language of rights, founded in legal concerns. [21]

但是，更大的问题是基于人权的方法是否以及如何为发展道德提供了信息。该术语指的是谁的权利？对个人的关注可以适应社区层面的发展工作现实吗？

同样的问题也适用于科学技术的伦理，尚未提出标准化的人权方法。但是，关于生物伦理学和人权的联合国教科文组织宣言是将基于人权的方法置于持久方面的重要地标ethical implications of rapid technological transformation。它明确地呼吁人权的普遍宣言，该声明承认应从权利的角度审查道德问题，同时指出“健康[从广泛的福祉和满足需求的意义上]不仅取决于科学和科学和技术研究的发展，也是关于社会心理和文化因素的”。[14]

In this context, one fundamental principle of policymaking should be a focus on securing human rights, and clarification of the actions required of both rights-holders and duty-bearers to do so. In concrete terms, this requires both policy-makers and stakeholders to remain vigilant as to how the policy they construct redresses human vulnerability and inequality, while actively establishing mechanisms that thwart human rights abuse. At the national and geo-political level, a human rights-based approach might allow vulnerable groups greater authority in conversations over global policy; and it would impel policymakers to tackle those aspects of global economic and political power that create the conditions for human rights violations.

Good practice

为了使政策和知识工作需要良好的实践，必须对其对政策目标的影响及其影响进行评估。这里的关键是翻译，动员和评估基于人权的方法的贡献。

The UN's human rights-based approach to programmes of development cooperation, policy and technical assistance uses a three-tiered approach that focuses on goals (realising rights), processes (standards and principles), and outcomes (increased capacity to meet obligations and claim rights).[23]

在联合国各个机构的支持下开发的基于人权的方法开发计划工具包为发展计划提供了参考 - 概述了优先事项，以牢记在更大的开发项目架构中的开发工作中。它有助于分析实施人权方法的进展。提供的工具之一是详细介绍人们和群体如何受到开发项目影响或忽视的表（图1）。

The toolkit attempts to firmly move the human rights-based approach away from abstract rulings and towards an analytic frame that can measure success. It is part of an approach to development planning (figure 2) that offers a series of principle-based guidelines that readily lend themselves to development projects, from inception to completion, while clearly illustrating how the international instruments discussed above (in Box 1) can be used to implement the human rights-based approach.

An example of how this might work in practice is a study of advancing the right to water, sanitation, water infrastructure and water use, led by the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) Lao PDR in collaboration with the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), the development charity Oxfam, and the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA). [26] Researchers used a range of techniques, to examine the politics of water distribution and use in Laos, that fall under the rubric of human rights-based approaches, including: participatory monitoring and evaluation, community dialogues between provincial and district officials and villages, transparent bidding processes for water supply, and community user groups (which build village consensus on contribution rates, maintenance of water systems).

人权-based futures

Certainly, science, technology, and development are central to the industrial and post-industrial revolution of the 21st century. And, even with their limitations, human rights are central to discussions on how science, technology, and development can promote human well-being. Human rights are also rights to sustainability, serving to protect the poor and vulnerable from the excesses of market-driven science and technology. Without a human rights approach to science, technology, and development, the uneven distribution of goods — from services and natural resources to intangible resources such as human dignity and autonomy — would only grow exacerbated, resulting in further environmental degradation and, above all, heightened vulnerability.

In other words, human rights-based approaches should not be treated as merely decorative moral dimensions to policy or scientific and technological innovation. They can form the very heart of sustainable futures.

s。罗米·穆克吉（Romi Mukherjee）是高级讲师巴黎政治研究所的政治理论和宗教历史以及法国巴黎芝加哥大学中心的访问讲师。

This article is part of aspotlighton联系人权，科学与发展。